How Much is that African Goliath Beetle in the Window?
One of the largest insects in the World is avidly sought out by collectors, exotic pet aficionados, and artists
Resembling a white and black or dark brown painted tennis ball with six legs, the African Goliath beetle is among the largest, certainly the heaviest, insects on Earth. An adult may be as large as a human fist - nearly four inches in length and weighing up to 1.3 ounces, while the even bigger hot dog shaped grub-like larvae are as long as five inches with a weight of as much as 3.5 ounces - nearly as much as the meat patty in a MacDonald’s Quarter Pounder. As one would expect, the enormous size, distinctive color pattern, and docile temperament of these creatures make them highly sought out, surprisingly expensive items in the insect collection trade, exotic pet trade, and the dead animal artwork trade.
Figure 1. Do Goliath beetles dream of six-legged sheep? Harmless adult male African Goliath beetle resting on a human hand
History of the Goliath Beetle
The first goliath beetle encountered by Europeans was an adult collected floating down the Gabon River estuary in Gabon in 1770. Purchased by William Hunter, a wealthy British amateur natural historian, who was well known for his large insect collection composed of many foreign and rare species. Dru Drury, a contemporary 18th Century naturalist, gave the beetle its scientific name, placing it within its own unique genus which he called Goliathus. Not unexpectedly, the massive insect was the pride and joy of Hunter, and greatly admired by his envious fellow collectors.
Intensive searches of the Dark Continent for additional goliath beetles were carried by expeditions led by intrepid explorers and collectors seeking valuable birds, butterflies, orchids and other species to sell to Europe’s wealthy amateur natural historians. But, it wasn’t until 1775, nine years after the first specimen was found, that a second Goliathus was collected. Captured in Sierra Leone, it represented a different species which scientists named the regal goliath beetle. For some 50 years after the first specimen was fished out of the Gabon River, Goliathus remained the Holy Grail of rich scientists and upper class ne’er do well naturalists because only three or four specimens were held in all the collections of Europe.
Figure 2. Photograph of the first Goliath beetle specimen seen by Europeans. It was called a “zebra beetle” by William Hunter, the British amateur naturalist who purchased it. A captain of a merchant ship collected the specimen as it floated down the Gabon Estuary in the western African country of Gabon in 1766.
Given the incredible amounts of money wealthy collectors would pay for a single goliath beetle, concentrated efforts eventually resulted in more specimens. We now know the massive insects are found only in sub-Saharan Africa, and depending on the species, often have have specific environmental requirements making them sensitive to habitat destruction.
Over the last 250 years, many species and subspecies of the goliath beetle have been named by entomologists and amateur collectors. The majority were often based on differences in size, and especially the color and color pattern of individual animals. These unique individuals are also known as “morphs” or “varieties,” terms which have no official standing in zoological nomenclature. Based on recent systematic studies, it’s generally accepted by entomologists that there are five species in the genus Goliathus.
Figure 3. The five species of Goliathus. Clockwise from upper left. The goliath beetle (Goliathus goliathus), the regal goliath beetle (Goliathus regius). The eastern goliath beetle (Goliathus orientalis). The white-lined goliath beetle (Goliathus albosignathus). The atlas goliath beetle (“Goliathus atlas”)- actually a hybrid between the regal goliath beetle and the cacicus goliath beetle. The cacicus goliath beetle (Goliathus cacicus).
Figure 4. Approximate distributions of the five species of goliath beetle. Clockwise from upper left. The regal goliath beetle occurs from Sierra Leone to Nigeria. The goliath beetle ranges from Nigeria east to Kenya and Tanzania. The eastern goliath beetle inhabits the African continent from Angola east into Tanzania and Zambia. The smallest and southern most member of the genus, the white-lined goliath beetle ranges along eastern Africa from Tanzania to Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The likely extinct cacicus goliath beetle was found from Liberia to Ghana. The atlas goliath beetle is considered by most entomologists to be a hybrid between the regal and cacicus goliath beetles.
How do Goliath Beetles Collected in the Wild end up in Developed Countries?
In recent times, the majority of goliath beetles sold in developed countries likely have been wild collected. The only study of the market chain for Goliathus was conducted in 2012 in western Cameroon near the border with Nigeria. Given the biology and ecology of the animals, it’s reasonable to assume these techniques and methods for collecting and selling the animals are very similar throughout Africa.
The study area in Cameroon contains tropical rainforest and agricultural crops. Most of the local people make their living as farmers, but some collect and sell beetles. Of 12 villages surveyed, six had families who gathered Goliathus and up to 18 other beetle species. Goliath beetles provide an important source of income and some people had collected beetles for 20 years or longer.
Adult Goliath beetles are active during the dry season which runs from October to February. Rather than randomly search through the rainforest for the animals, local people remove the bark from specific tree species containing sap eagerly sought out by adult Goliathus. After a few days, the sap begins to ferment and is eagerly drunk by many species of butterflies, beetles, bees, and other insects. The locals return to the barkless trees at night or just before sunrise with flashlights or fire-lite wood torches to handpick or use butterfly nets to capture the normally skittish Goliath beetles while they are obliviously drinking the sap.
The captured beetles are injected with alcohol to kill them, and then placed in the sun to dry. Once dry, each animal is placed on a piece of cardboard approximately the size of the beetle, and clear plastic stapled over it. The prepared insects are stored in airtight pest proof containers to protect them from mold and insects, such as ants or cockroaches, who will quickly eat the dead beetles.
The 2012 Cameroon study found the locals sold their goliath beetle specimens to middlemen or exporters who then sold them to foreign insect collectors. Today, based on a review of insect dealers on the internet and Facebook, it appears at least some locals sell directly to customers in developed nations. Stories are common on the internet of locals or even middlemen accepting money and then not sending the goliath beetles or sending specimens of low value or quality. Conversely, during investigations of the international insect trade by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (= USFWS), we found that some US dealers routinely received specimens from local collectors and middlemen but refused to pay them, falsely claiming the insects were damaged in transit or never arrived. The locals and their families suffered terribly severe economic problems after the American dealers stole their specimens.
Prices of goliath beetles are based on the species, sex, size, color, color pattern, and physical condition. Species, subspecies, and morphs that are white colored or have more than or normal amounts of white command higher prices from amateur collectors in developed countries. In 1994, the price of Goliathus goliathus ranged from $18 to $32; in 2022, prices had increased to an average of $72 to $450 per specimen. Regal goliath beetles ranged from $14 to $36 in 1994; and up to $329 to $707 in 2022. The white-lined goliath beetle generally decreased in price between 1994 and 2022; $125 for a male-female pair to $40-$50 for a single male in 2022. In 1994, the eastern goliath beetle ranged in price from $28-$48 and $45-$250 per specimen in 2022. The cacicus goliath beetle, a species believed by a number of Goliathus collectors to be extinct, increased in price from $48 in 1994 to as much as $3650 per specimen in 2016.
All five species of Goliathus for sale are easily found for sale on eBay, Facebook, and on the websites of dozens of commercial internet insect dealers. There is no reliable source of information on the total number of goliath beetles collected, sold, or purchased, but the amount is certainly quite high given the number of animals advertised for sale. Goliathus are not the only insect for sale on the internet, in fact, common, rare, imperiled, or even protected invertebrates are advertised for purchase or can be easily obtained on the web.
Figure 5. The market chain of wild collected Goliath beetles is still relatively poorly documented. In Cameroon, local villagers visit specific tree species whose sap is highly attractive to the insects (Upper and Lower Left). The bark is removed to create sap flows which is eaten by Goliathus (Lower Right). The specimens are caught, killed and then sold to middle men who sell the dead beetles to dealers in Europe, Asia, and the United States (Upper Right). The markup at each stage of the market chain is considerable.
Figure 6. Dead Goliathus in the field. After being killed and dried, the specimens (Upper Left, Upper Right and Lower Right) are prepared by collectors who carefully place individual beetles on a piece of cardboard which is then stapled to clear plastic (Lower Left).
Figure 7. Possible market chain for goliath beetles from local collectors to buyers in developed countries. Red arrows with question marks are based on likely direct contact between villagers, middlemen, and foreign beetle collectors via eBay, Facebook, and the internet. Market chain based on Muafor et al 2012)
Figure 8. Exorbitant prices are paid for cacicus goliath beetles, believed by a number of insect collectors to be extinct.
Figure 9. Collectors in developed countries will pay more for white colored Goliath beetle species, subspecies, and morphs.
Figure 10. Counterfeit Goliath beetles. Some collectors or dealers have painted dark colored individuals of common species so they appear to be the more valued white colored species, subspecies, or morphs.
Secrets of Raising Goliath Beetles in Captivity
Until relatively recently, there were two huge gaps in the knowledge of the life history of the Goliathus which prevent their successful captive breeding. Goliath beetles undergo what entomologists term “complete metamorphosis” - egg, larvae, pupa (sometimes colloquially called the cocoon stage), and then the adult stage. For decades, virtually no animals were reared in captivity to the adult stage due to near total death rates among the larvae. It was enthusiastic, dedicated and knowledgeable amateurs who solved the mysteries that led to successful breeding.
First, unlike the majority of its plant-feeding scarab beetle relatives, a serendipitous discovery revealed the larvae of goliath beetles are carnivorous and captive individuals require dry dog or fish food to survive and reach adulthood. Captive goliath beetle larvae have been observed eating the larvae of other beetle species in captivity. Second, as the captive larvae reached their pupal stage, they would begin wandering around the surface of their cages, with many eventually dying. Finding traces of dry red clay on the bodies of dead wild collected adults, an astute and observant goliath beetle enthusiast realized the larvae required clay soils to make the “cocoon” covering their pupae and then successfully reach adulthood. Once the unexpected answers to the two secrets were found, animals are now reared to adulthood in captivity, although it still remains difficult and success requires the skills and knowledge of an experience breeder.
Figure 11. “Is that a goliath beetle larva in your hand or are you just glad to see me?” A fully grown goliath beetle larvae. Next on its list of things to do is burrow into clay soil to make its cocoon.
Figure 12. Once the mystery of the diet of the goliath beetle larvae was solved - they are carnivorous; and that clay soil is required for their successful pupation, amateur collectors have been able to successfully rear the animals in captivity. Still, raising the animals from egg to adult requires the skill level of an experienced insect breeder. Upper Left- Mating adult goliath beetles; female eating banana. Upper Right - “Does this paper box make me look fat?” Larva being weighed on electronic scale. Lower Left - Pupa of goliath beetle developing inside a “cocoon” consisting of clay soil. Lower Right - captive adult female goliath beetles eat special nutritious commercial “beetle jelly”
Figure 13. Looking like a scene from the movie “Alien,” placed in neat rows, captive bred goliath beetle pupae inside their clay cocoons quietly metamorphosize into adults
Figure 14. Similar to gun and reptile shows, enthusiastic devoted amateur insect collectors attend insect fairs where dealers sell them live animals and dead specimens. Goliath beetle are a common item offered for sale. It’s not uncommon for rare, imperiled, and legally protected insect species to be traded, sold, and purchased. Insect fairs are held in Europe, Asia, and the United States, such as the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
Top Left - insect fair in Asia. Middle Left - Insect fair in Europe. Lower Left - live beetles, including Goliathus, being sold. Top Right - Live Goliathus pupae in their clay cocoons for sale. Middle and Lower Right - dead adult Goliathus beetles for sale.
Goliath Beetles as Pets
There are a surprising number of amateur exotic pet enthusiasts who breed and raise not only goliath beetles, but other invertebrates, including walking sticks, praying mantids, crayfish, tropical cockroaches, and elephant and Hercules beetles.
The popular Japanese magazine Be Kuwa is devoted to the rearing of live beetles. There are several specialty stores in Japan and Korea that sell live beetles as well as specialized food and equipment for raising them.
The extent of the insect pet trade as well as the impacts of both their removal and inadvertent escapes or deliberate releases on native ecosystems remain poorly known. However, some entomologists have expressed serious concern that the decline of some temperate region butterfly species are the result of exotic diseases carried by tropical butterflies who have escaped from “butterfly houses,” a now popular attraction at zoos and some museums. It is perhaps similar to the impact the avian West Nile Disease had on native birds in North America. The likelihood of diseases carried by exotic goliath beetles that may be a threat to native beetles and other insects is unknown.
Figure 15. The size of the pet trade in goliath beetles is unknown, but likely substantial. Left Photo - live goliath beetle and other tropical scarab beetles sitting on human hand. Upper Right - live goliath beetle in the palm of a keeper at the Cincinnati zoo. Middle Right - adult female feeds on ripe banana. Lower Right - adult Goliathus goliathus enjoys a very ripe banana.
Figure 16. Breeding and collecting live beetles is popular in the United States, Europe, and especially Asia. Upper left: Be-Kuwa, a popular Japanese magazine devoted to the raising of beetles. Upper right: Live beetles for sale to curious customers at a Japanese department store. Middle left: Wood from specific tree species and special diets for raising beetles can be purchased at this Japanese store devoted to beetle enthusiasts. Middle center: Japanese boys with beetles they raised posted on a Japanese beetle website. Middle right: live beetles for sale at a Japanese beetle store. Lower left: live beetles for sale at a Japanese beetle store. Lower right: specialty store devoted to live and dead beetles and butterflies in Korea.
Goliath Beetles for Insect Collectors and Museums
A large preserved Goliath beetle is often a prized specimen in museum, university, and private collections. Colloquially known as a member of the “Omyidae” ( = oh-my-idae, idae is the scientific designation for family), they are understandably of interest and amazement when shown to members of the public who visit the collection.
From a scientific perspective, properly preserved specimens of plants and animals with accurate collection data (location and collected, name of collector, and other information) are invaluable resources for understanding evolution, ecology, biology, the effects of global climate change, deforestation, and other environmental impacts. Many collections contain specimens of Goliath beetles, birds, mammals, reptiles, and other species collected at locations where the natural habitats are now cities, harbors, and other human creations.
Unfortunately, since humans began to collect and study plants and animals, there have been powerful incentives for some collectors and dealers to falsify when and especially when specimens were found.
The USFWS investigated the international trade in insects and during the execution of a search warrant on one US dealer, it was found he had large boxes filled with literally thousands of Goliathus and other large tropical beetles. Each individual insect had been wrapped in cardboard covered with clear plastic by locals who had collected the specimens in African or South American rainforests. None had even the most minimal locality data or date they were collected so they had no scientific value, but when the dealer sold a specimen via the internet, he would write the place name of randomly chosen locations within the range of each species on the individual cardboard packages before he shipped them to his customers. No doubt some of these specimens now reside in major museum and university entomology collections where their “data” has almost certainly been used in peer-reviewed articles published in scientific journals.
There are two reasons why dealers omit or invent information about the locations where Goliathus and other foreign insects they sell were collected. First, a practice that has been going on for hundreds of years with the commercial insect trade, human sources of specimens in foreign countries are often hard to find, and false data conceals this information for other competitor dealers. Second is the mistaken belief of many dealers that USFWS will be unable to determine if the specimens represent protected species requiring permits to collect or export them.
Given the widespread nature of these practices by dealers, unless there is reliable information, such as the personal account or field notes of the entomologist who actually collected the specimen, museums and universities should consider collecting data on labels on their specimens of Goliathus and all other commercially valuable insects to be suspect.
During a USFWS search warrant executed on a butterfly poacher in the San Francisco Bay Area, we found hundreds of specimens of the then unprotected callippe silverspot butterfly carefully stored in a freezer in his garage. He explained he was saving them in the event the species was listed on the Endangered Species Act because their dollar value if he sold them or their value as trading specimens to other collectors would dramatically increase.
A second USFWS search warrant executed on another butterfly poacher revealed he had discovered a new species of butterfly while serving as a U.S. Army clerk at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. He kept the location where the animals lived on the sprawling base a secret known only to himself and spread the lie they were extinct to increase their value in exchanges for butterfly species with other collectors. An insect dealer had hundreds of carefully preserved specimens of the large brilliantly colored Sunset Moth, found only on the island of Madagascar. Why was he saving them? He explained to us their dollar value will skyrocket if and when the animal becomes extinct.
Figure 17. Goliath beetle specimens in the entomology collection of a natural history museum. Each specimen is pinned with a special insect pin to which is attached a piece of paper with the exact date and location where it was captured, and often other information such as the name of the collector and associated ecological data. Specimens without this critical information are scientifically worthless.
Figure 18. Goliath beetles, including Goliathus cacicus, for sale at a European insect fair to insect collectors. Note prices of the specimens.
Figure 19. “Dr. Livingston, I presume?” White-lined Goliath beetle collected on Dr David Livingston’s 1858 expedition to the Zambezi River in the hills above Kebrabassa in what is now modern day Mozambique. The specimen served as the basis for the scientific name Goliathus kirkianus (later changed by entomologists to Goliathus albosignathus). The specimen currently resides in the Natural History Museum (BM) in London, Great Britain.
Goliath Beetles in Artwork and Knick Knacks
The majority of wild collected goliath beetles killed for sale end up reduced to little more than curiosities glued in picture frames and glass domes which are then placed on walls and bookshelves in homes and businesses. With no scientific data, the formerly living creatures are simply novelties and knickknacks, whose colors will fade in a few years to fraction of their former brilliance, and their bodies reduced to unidentifiable dust and debris by dermestid beetles, silverfish and other insects.
Figure 20. Top four photos - Goliath beetles used in novelty artwork and conversation pieces. Bottom - Within a few years, the color of the dead animals will fade and often their bodies reduced to dust by dermestid beetles and other insects.
Figure 21. Artists have been using dead animals to create artwork, including goliath beetles, for centuries. Many people enjoy having beautiful or unique dead animals decorating in their homes or businesses. These four photos are from some wildlife art auctions in Paris, France
Threats to Goliath Beetles
There are three major threats to the goliath beetle - habitat destruction, over-collection, and global climate change.
As with nearly all forested regions on Earth, the rainforest habitat of goliath beetles throughout the African continent has been and is being rapidly cut down for timber harvest, to clear land for large scale commercial oil palm, coffee, cocoa, and bananas, and slash and burn agriculture by local human inhabitants. Between 1990 to 2020, Cameroon lost 60% of its forest cover, while less than 2-5% of the original forest remains in Ghana and Ivory Coast.
In additional to the direct effects of removing goliath beetles, especially females, from wild populations, locals damage and kill trees by removing the bark to create sap flows for capturing Goliathus, and the use of fire-lite torches may cause wildfires.
That global climate change is real and it is human caused is no longer questioned or doubted by reputable scientists. Coupled with the direct actions of urban development, logging, mining, oil and gas drilling, overfishing, over hunting, and uncontrolled plastic pollution of the oceans, to name a few, we are well into the greatest mass species extinction since the Earth was struck by an asteroid 65 million years ago. In order to survive, goliath beetles, in addition to controlling overcollecting and the destruction of their habitats, we must find a way to deal with the local impacts of global climate change on them including regional long term droughts, extreme flooding events, and devastating wildfires.
Figure 22. Area in the Congo where the lowland rainforest has been cut down to grow agricultural crops. When its the native forest habitat is gone, the Goliath beetle can’t survive. As with all other forested regions on Earth, the African forests inhabited by the Goliath beetle are being rapidly cut down for timber, mining, and to clear lands for crops including cocoa and especially oil palms.
Legal Protection of Goliath Beetles
None of the African nations inhabited by Goliath beetles are known to specifically protect the animals, and enforcement of general collecting and export laws for insects are inconsistent. Goliathus is not listed on any of the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES). CITES is an international treaty intended to protect and monitor imperiled species in commercial trade.
The USFWS has not placed any species of Goliathus on the Endangered Species Act (= ESA). Given the relentless foot dragging of self-serving politically timid Agency leaders to list any imperiled plants or animals on the ESA, not matter how close to extinction, the likelihood of any Goliath beetle taxa obtaining protection under this law is essentially non-existent.
Dealers and other parties who import living or dead Goliath beetles into the United States without the appropriate permits from their country of origin, or transport illegally collected or smuggled Goliathus across state lines would be in violation of the Lacey Act.
The US. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS) is specifically charged with ensure no harmful invasive species enter the United States. The USDA-APHIS made the determination that the unlimited importation of living goliath beetles into the United States and across State lines poses no threat to native animals and plants based on the flimsiest of “scientific” rationale - Goliathus larvae are carnivorous and the adults feed on tree sap. However, that Agency seems to have overlooked a number of foreign invertebrates with similar biologies to the goliath beetle that have established themselves in the United States and are now economically and agriculturally important pests.
And as is the rule rather than the exception, environmental organizations devoted to insect conservation focus their efforts on fund raising to pay their executives massive salaries and benefits, and maintaining “cordial” relationships with neonicortinoid insecticide producing chemical companies to ensure monetary donations, rather than preventing the extinction of endangered invertebrates such as Goliathus.
Conclusion
Like far too many of our fellow spineless creatures, some species of Goliathus are in danger from overcollecting, habitat destruction, and global climate change, but they remain unprotected at the international level and under most national wildlife laws.
USDA-APHIS should re-evaluate if they should continue to allow uncontrolled importation of live Goliathus into the United States and across Statelines.
All five Goliathus species should be listed on the Endangered Species Act, although many in USFWS management will turn the straight forward process into an exercise Akins to climbing a hill of broken glass in bare feet.
To conserve the goliath beetle from illegal international trade, at a minimum, all five species in the genus Goliathus should be listed on Appendix II of CITES. An Appendix II designation will also serve as the incentive to accurately determine their status, and the extent of the commercial trade and captive breeding of these animals.
Without doubt, the most difficult threat to the goliath beetle for humans to address is global climate change. Solving this planetary disaster will require truly Herculean efforts. For those of us in the United States, it’s hardly an expose that many of our politicians have no concern or understanding of environmental issues even one that has a human extinction level outcome. And many of the current leaders at the Federal agencies responsible for protecting the environment, notably the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service completely lack the intestinal fortitude and sense of self-sacrifice to rock the political boat, not practice the art of the shut mouth and turned head in order to ensure their career survival and next promotion, and not continue making endless excuses for doing nothing.
References
Barney, S. 2020. A Goliath undertaking: notes on African giants in America Goliathus Lamarck, 1801 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae). Scarabaeus 1: 12-14
Blackburn, R. 2016. The lecotype of Goliathus drurii Westwood, 1837 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidaw: Cetoniinae) in the Maclean Museum, University of Sydney, Australia. Zootaxa 4161(1): 141-145
De Palma, M., H. Takano, P. Leonard, and T. Bouyer. 2020. Barcoding analysis and taxonomic revision of Goliathus Lamarck, 1802 (Scarabaeidae, Ceroniinae). Entomologia Africana 25(1): 11-32
Dendi, D., S.N. Ajong, G. Amori, and L. Luiselli. 2021. Decline of the commercially attractive white morph in goliath beetle polymorphic populations. Density 3, 888
Douglas, A.S. And E.G. Hancock. 2007. Insect collecting in Africa during the Eighteenth Century and William Hunter’s collection. Archives of Natural History 34(2): 293-301
Hancock, E.G. 2004. William Hunter’s insect collection and emerging descriptive taxonomy in the Eighteenth Century. NatSOA News 4: 813
Hancock, E.G., and A.S. Douglas. 2009. William Hunter’s Goliath beetle, Goliathus goliathus (Linnaeus, 1771), re-visited. Archives of Natural History 36(2): 218-230
Insidoo, T., M. Pos-Tonen, L. Hoogenbosch, and E. Acheam-Pong. 2012. Addressing forest degradation and timber deficits in Ghana. ETFRN News 53: 230-239
Kim, J. 2013. Beetle culture in Kore. Scarabs 74: 1-5
Lai, J. 2013. White form of Goliathus orientalis from Tanzania. Scarabs 73: 7-10
_____ 2015. Goliathus then and now: last piece of the puzzle found. Scarabs 73: 12-22
LeGall, P. 2010. Affinities biogeogeographiques SES insects du “Dahomey gap” presence d’une population de Goliathus goliathus Linne, 1771, au Benin (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae, Ceroniinae). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 115(1): 17-21
Mawdsley, J.R. 2013. Taxonomy of the Goliath beetle Goliathus orientalis Moser, 1909 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae). Journal of Natural History 47: 1451-1461
Miwa, K. 2011. A passion for rhinoceros and stag beetles in Japan. Scarabs 67: 1-9
Muafor, F.J., P. Levang, T.E. Angwafo, and P. LeGall. 2012. Making a living with forest insects: beetles as an income source in southwest Cameroon. International Forestry Review 14(3): 314-325
Mudge, A., J. Orozco, T. Philips, and P. Antoine. 2012. The Cetoniinae of the upper Guinean forests and savanna’s of Ghana (Coleopterist: Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae). Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews 5: 113-174
Vendl, T. And P. Sipek. 2016. Immature stages of giants: morphology and growth characteristics of Goliathus Lamarck, 1801 larvae indicate a predatory way of life (Coleoptera, Scarabsidae, Ceroniinae). Zootaxa 619: 25-44